Spatiotemporal overlap among snow leopard, bharal, and free-ranging livestock: Suggestions on mitigating human-snow leopard conflict

Predation on livestock by large carnivores, such as snow leopard (Panthera uncia), is a global issue that leads to human-wildlife conflicts (HWC). In the Sanjiangyuan National Park (SNP) located in western China, traditional grazing practices have resulted in extensive utilization of snow leopard habitats as pasturelands. The presence of domestic animals in snow leopard habitats increases the likelihood of predation by snow leopards, thereby exacerbating human-snow leopard conflict. In this study, questionnaire surveys were utilized to investigate the attitudes of local herders in Bagan, a township at the southeastern periphery of SNP, towards snow leopard attacks on livestock. Additionally, infrared camera trapping was employed to explore the spatial and temporal overlap between snow leopards, bharals (Pseudois nayaur) and free-ranging livestock. The resulting overlap coefficients were utilized to quantify the competition in the space use and the overlap of daily activity rhythms respectively between these species based on infrared camera records. The questionnaire surveys revealed that snow leopards primarily targeted livestock during nocturnal hours, leading to negative attitudes among herders. Spatial overlap results indicated that bharal and livestock exhibited the highest degree of spatial utilization overlap (OI = 0.78), followed by snow leopard and bharal (OI = 0.75), as well as snow leopard and livestock (OI = 0.75). Furthermore, the temporal overlap results for daily activity rhythms demonstrated a high level of consistency between bharal and livestock (Δ = 0.95). Our findings indicated a high spatial overlap between free-ranging livestock and snow leopards, thereby increasing the likelihood of encounters between these two groups and subsequently heightening the potential for predation on livestock by snow leopards. This heightened predation risk was considered one of the primary drivers behind HWC. To mitigate retaliatory killing on snow leopards by herders and to safeguard herders’ interests, we have proposed a multipronged conservation program encompassing regular removal of animal traps, regulation of grazing areas, and reinforcement of supervision to minimize livestock susceptibility to predation.