Management of hepatorenal syndrome and treatment-related adverse events.

Hepatorenal Syndrome is a critical complication of liver failure, mainly in cirrhotic patients and rarely in patients with acute liver disease. It is a complex spectrum of conditions that leads to renal dysfunction in the liver cirrhosis population; the pathophysiology is characterized by a specific triad: circulatory dysfunction, nitric oxide (NO) dysfunction and systemic inflammation but a specific kidney damage has never been demonstrated, in a clinicopathological study, kidney biopsies of patients with cirrhosis showed a wide spectrum of kidney damage. In addition, the absence of significant hematuria or proteinuria does not exclude renal damage. It is estimated that 40% of cirrhotic patients will develop hepatorenal syndrome with in-hospital mortality of about one-third of these patients. The burden of the problem is dramatic considering the worldwide prevalence of more than 10 million decompensated cirrhotic patients, and the age-standardized prevalence rate of decompensated cirrhosis has gone through a significant rise between 1990 and 2017. Given the syndrome's poor prognosis, the clinician must know how to manage early treatment and any complications. The widespread adoption of albumin and vasopressors has increased Hepatorenal syndrome-acute kidney injury reversal and may increase overall survival, as previously shown. Further research is needed to define whether the subclassification of patients may allow to find a personalized strategy to treat Hepatorenal Syndrome and to define the role of new molecules and extracorporeal treatment may allow better outcomes with a reduction in treatment-related adverse effects. This review aims to examine both pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment of hepatorenal syndrome, with a particular focus on managing adverse events caused by treatment.