Addressing Fecal Contamination in Rural Kenyan Households: The Roles of Environmental Interventions and Animal Ownership.

Combined water, sanitation, and handwashing (WSH) interventions could reduce fecal contamination along more transmission pathways than single interventions alone. We measured Escherichia coli levels in 3909 drinking water samples, 2691 child hand rinses, and 2422 toy ball rinses collected from households enrolled in a 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating single and combined WSH interventions. Water treatment with chlorine reduced E. coli in drinking water. A combined WSH intervention improved water quality by the same magnitude but did not affect E. coli levels on hands or toys. One potential explanation for the limited impact of the sanitation intervention (upgraded latrines) is failure to address dog and livestock fecal contamination. Small ruminant (goat or sheep) ownership was associated with increased E. coli levels in stored water and on child hands. Cattle and poultry ownership was protective against child stunting, and domesticated animal ownership was not associated with child diarrhea. Our findings do not support restricting household animal ownership to prevent child diarrheal disease or stunting but do support calls for WSH infrastructure that can more effectively reduce household fecal contamination.