Unveiling spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services and their drivers in varied landform types: Insights from the Sichuan-Yunnan ecological barrier area

Comprehending and capturing the dynamics of change within regional ecosystem services (ESs) and elucidating the responses of ES drivers across diverse natural geographic environments stand as the foundational requisites for crafting efficacious ecosystem management strategies. Landform classifications serve as the intrinsic environmental underpinning for distinct ES operations, yet our comprehension of ES responses to drivers in different landform types remains limited. This study focuses on the Sichuan-Yunnan ecological barrier area, characterized by complex topography and a range of landform types. By systematically analyzing changes in six ESs, we employed an optimal parameters-based geographical detector model to examine driving factors from holistic and landform-specific perspectives. Findings reveal a consistent increase in the aggregate level of six ESs-food production (FP), carbon storage (CS), soil retention (SR), water yield (WY), nitrogen export (NE), and habitat quality (HQ)-during 2000-2020. ES supply varied significantly across landform types. From a holistic perspective, natural factor-dominated ESs (CS, SR, WY) were influenced by topographic and climatic conditions, while natural-socio-economic factor-dominated ESs (FP, NE, HQ) were more affected by socio-economic factors, especially population density and nighttime lighting. From a landform type perspective, driving factors had significant differences in the spatial differentiation of ESs across landform types. Although different ESs were more susceptible to the combined effects of temperature factors and GDP, the accessibility factors became increasingly influential as topographic relief index increased from plains to highest relief mountains, and water were the most critical core factor for ES provisioning in ecologically fragile and sensitive highest relief mountains. Our targeted analysis enhances understanding of ES spatial heterogeneity in complex mountain regions and provides insights for tailored restoration and management strategies across diverse landforms. These findings establish a basis for spatial zoning management and control to improve ESs under different landform types.