Interactions between climate change and urbanization will shape the future of biodiversity

Climate change and urbanization are two of the most prominent global drivers of biodiversity and ecosystem change. Fully understanding, predicting and mitigating the biological impacts of climate change and urbanization are not possible in isolation, especially given their growing importance in shaping human society. Here we develop an integrated framework for understanding and predicting the joint effects of climate change and urbanization on ecology, evolution and their eco-evolutionary interactions. We review five examples of interactions and then present five hypotheses that offer opportunities for predicting biodiversity and its interaction with human social and cultural systems under future scenarios. We also discuss research opportunities and ways to design resilient landscapes that address both biological and societal concerns. In this Perspective, the authors develop an integrated framework to understand and predict the joint impacts of climate change and urbanization on biodiversity and ecosystems. They review examples of interacting impacts and present opportunities for future research.