Comorbidity and sex differences in functional disorders and internalizing disorders

Objective In the current exploratory study we estimate comorbidity rates between FDs [fibromyalgia (FM), myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)]—and IDs—[major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)] by using self-reported diagnostic criteria. Method We analyzed data from 107,849 participants (mean age = 49.3 (SD = 13.0), 58.6% women) of the Lifelines Cohort Study. Lifelines is a prospective population-based cohort study in the northeast of the Netherlands. Current IDs were assessed using the Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Current FM, ME/CFS, and IBS were assessed according to the 2010 American College of Rheumatology criteria, the 1994 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention criteria and the ROME IV criteria, respectively. We estimated tetrachoric correlations between diagnoses and tested for sex differences. Additionally, we estimated the ratio of observed-to-expected frequency for combinations of diagnoses. Results FDs and IDs are highly comorbid (odds ratios: 3.2–12.6) with associations stronger among men. Participants with at least three disorders/diagnoses were more prevalent than expected by chance. Conclusion Studies that aim to explain sex differences and the comorbidity of specific combinations of IDs and FDs will be an important contribution to understanding the etiology of these conditions.