Ophthalmic findings and parameters in Western tiger salamanders (Ambystoma mavortium) from northern Colorado

Objective: The aim of this study was to document ophthalmic examination findings and provide reference values for ocular examinations and diagnostics in clinically normal Western tiger salamanders (Ambystoma mavortium) and to evaluate the mydriatic effect of a topical rocuronium bromide and identify any adverse effects. Animals Studied: Sixteen Western tiger salamanders. ProcedureA complete ophthalmic examination, including intraocular pressure via rebound tonometry [iCare (R) TonoVet (dog-setting) or iCare (R) TonoVet Plus (dog-setting)], and fluorescein and Rose Bengal stains, was performed. Ocular surface flora culture swabs were collected for microbiology in four salamanders. Rocuronium bromide (50 mu L; 0.01 mg) was administered into each eye in three salamanders. Pupil size and constriction ability were evaluated up to 60 min following administration of rocuronium bromide. Distant visual examination and Doppler heart rate were used to monitor for potential adverse effects of rocuronium bromide. Results: Observed ocular abnormalities included lipid keratopathy/keratitis (19%; 3/16), parasitic ophthalmitis (19%; 3/16), and cataracts (6.3%; 1/16). A significant difference was found between tonometry with iCare (R) TonoVet (11.5 +/- 2.7 mmHg) versus TonoVet Plus (15.4 +/- 3.7 mmHg) (p = .025). Fluorescein and Rose Bengal stains were negative in all salamanders. Ocular surface microbiology revealed a high incidence of contamination from environmental flora, with the most common isolate being unidentified as Gram-negative nonfermenters (75%; 3/4). No significant change in pupil size or constriction ability was observed with rocuronium bromide. Conclusion: This is the first study to document ocular examination findings and diagnostics in captive and wild urodeles and may serve as a reference for clinical assessment and future studies of the Western tiger salamander.