Urinary cadmium concentration is associated with the severity and clinical outcomes of COVID-19: a bicenter observational cohort study

Cadmium and nickel exposure can cause oxidative stress, induce inflammation, inhibit immune function, and therefore has significant impacts on the pathogenesis and severity of many diseases. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection can also provoke oxidative stress and the dysregulation of inflammatory and immune responses. This study aimed to assess the potential associations of cadmium and nickel exposure with the severity and clinical outcomes of patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We performed a retrospective, observational, bicenter cohort analysis of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection in Taiwan between June 2022 and July 2023. Cadmium and nickel concentrations in blood and urine were measured within 3 days of the diagnosis of acute SARS-CoV-2 infection, and the severity and clinical outcomes of patients with COVID-19 were analyzed. A total of 574 patients were analyzed and divided into a severe COVID-19 group (hospitalized patients) (n = 252; 43.9