Evaluating multifaceted effects of watershed properties and human activities on drought propagation in the Wei River Basin with an integrated framework

Understanding the factors driving propagation from meteorological to hydrological drought is crucial for drought mitigation. In this study, an integrated framework based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool model, standardised drought indices and Geographical Detector were used to investigate how and to what extent watershed properties and human activities affect the spatial heterogeneity of drought propagation in the Wei River Basin, a typical arid and semi-arid region in China. Results indicated that (1) spatially, the propagation times increased from southwest to northeast. Seasonally, the propagation was shorter and stronger in summer and autumn. (2) The aridity index significantly affected the spatial distribution of drought propagation time for the entire basin, especially in summer, while human activities primarily drove spatial distribution in the sub-basins. The explanatory power of any two independent factors was non-linearly enhanced after the interaction. (3) Watershed properties potentially impacted the anthropogenic driving factor of drought propagation. Strong anthropogenic effects on drought propagation often occurred in watersheds with moderate drought levels, steep slopes, low elevations, and small areas, and the key factors varied seasonally. These findings help elucidate the multifaceted effects of watershed properties and human activities on drought propagation. The proposed framework and the results of this study provide valuable guidance for formulating precise drought control strategies in the Wei River Basin and worldwide.