Codonopsis pilosula water extract delays D-galactose-induced aging of the brain in mice by activating autophagy and regulating metabolism

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Codonopsis pilosula (C. pilosula), also called "Dangshen" in Chinese, is derived from the roots of Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. (C. pilosula), Codonopsis pilosula var. Modesta (Nannf.) L.D. Shen (C. pilosula var. modesta) or Codonopsis pilosula subsp. Tangshen (Oliv.) D.Y.Hong (C. pilosula subsp. tangshen), is a well-known traditional Chinese medicine. It has been regularly used for anti-aging, strengthening the spleen and tonifying the lungs, regulating blood sugar, lowering blood pressure, strengthening the body's immune system, etc. However, the mechanism, by which, C. pilosula exerts its therapeutic effects on brain aging remains unclear. Aim of the study: This study aimed to investigate the underlying mechanisms of the protective effects of C. pilosula water extract (CPWE) on the hippocampal tissue of D-galactose-induced aging mice. Materials and methods: In this research, plant taxonomy has been confirmed in the "The Plant List" database (www.theplantlist.org). First, an aging mouse model was established through the intraperitoneal injections of Dgalactose solution, and low-, medium-, and high-dose CPWE were administered to mice by gavage for 42 days. Then, the learning and memory abilities of the mice were examined using the Morris water maze tests and stepdown test. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was performed to visualize histopathological damage in the hippocampus. A transmission electron microscope was used to observe the ultrastructure of hippocampal neurons. Immunohistochemical staining was performed to examine the expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), the marker protein of astrocyte activation, and autophagy-related proteins, including microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) and sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1)/p62, in the hippocampal tissues of mice. Moreover, targeted metabolomic analysis was performed to assess the changes in polar metabolites and short-chain fatty acids in the hippocampus. Results: First, CPWE alleviated cognitive impairment and ameliorated hippocampal tissue damage in aging mice. Furthermore, CPWE markedly alleviated mitochondrial damage, restored the number of autophagosomes, and activated autophagy in the hippocampal tissue of aging mice by increasing the expression of LC3 protein and reducing the expression of p62 protein. Meanwhile, the expression levels of the brain injury marker protein GFAP decreased. Moreover, quantitative targeted metabolomic analysis revealed that CPWE intervention reversed the abnormal levels of L-asparagine, L-glutamic acid, L-glutamine, serotonin hydrochloride, succinic acid, and acetic acid in the hippocampal tissue of aging mice. CPWE also significantly regulated pathways associated with Dglutamine and D-glutamate metabolism, nitrogen metabolism, arginine biosynthesis, alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolisms, and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis.