Seamounts ecological modelling: A comprehensive review and assessment of modelling suitability to emergent challenges

Seamounts are submerged marine mountains across the world's oceans at complex geological and hydrodynamic sites, hosting significant biodiversity and economically important species. However, their inaccessibility impairs long-term surveys and subsequent knowledge of their biodiversity and dynamics. Among the available tools to support decision -management of ecosystems with such characteristics (e.g., ecological models; frameworks), we hereby conduct a systematic review of ecological models available for seamounts. Furthermore, we apply an adapted DPSIR framework (DAPSI(W)R(M)) to understand current and emergent pressures, the state of the system, and its impacts. Following this approach, we discuss the suitability and limitations of ecological models to support seamounts management plans under the current state and emergent challenges. Results show that the number of ecological models applied to seamounts has been increasing since 2009, focusing on Phylum Chordata (mostly fishes), and are mostly species distribution and habitat suitability models (40.3% and 23.6%, respectively). While acknowledging the importance of these studies, we have identified that existing models do not entirely suit the emergent challenges of seamounts, especially deep-sea mining and climate change. To cope with this, we propose that future seamount models should account for: i) other Phyla and species relevant for seamount ecology, ii) describe the effects of isolated and combined interactions of stressors over time and space, and iii) present the uncertainty associated with results. Such a framework can be achieved through model ensemble approaches that can fully assess the extent and magnitude of present and future pressures and associated effects. Finally, as most of the seamount distribution is in areas beyond national jurisdiction, and the current legislation of these areas is scarce, it is urgent to formulate regulatory frameworks to support holistic management actions in seamounts and promote ethical and environmentally responsible practices for sustainable use of ecosystem services and maintain a healthy functioning of these ecosystems.