Tropical tropospheric aerosol sources and chemical composition observed at high altitude in the Bolivian Andes

The chemical composition of PM 10 and non-overlapping PM 2.5 was studied at the summit of Mt. Chacaltaya (5380 m a.s.l., lat. - 16.346950 degrees, long. - 68.128250 degrees) providing a unique long-term record spanning from December 2011 to March 2020. The chemical composition of aerosol at the Chacaltaya Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) site is representative of the regional background, seasonally affected by biomass burning practices and by nearby anthropogenic emissions from the metropolitan area of La Paz-El Alto. Concentration levels are clearly influenced by seasons with minima occurring during the wet season (December to March) and maxima occurring during the dry and transition seasons (April to November). Ions, total carbon (EC + OC), and saccharide interquartile ranges for concentrations are 558-1785, 384-1120, and 4.3-25.5 ng m - 3 for bulk PM 10 and 917-2308, 519-1175, and 3.9-24.1 ng m - 3 for PM 2.5 , respectively, with most of the aerosol seemingly present in the PM 2.5 fraction. Such concentrations are overall lower compared to other high-altitude stations around the globe but higher than Amazonian remote sites (except for OC). For PM 10 , there is dominance of insoluble mineral matter (33 %-56 % of the mass), organic matter (7 %-34 %), and secondary inorganic aerosol (15 %-26 %). Chemical composition profiles were identified for different origins: EC, NO 3 - , NH 4 + , glucose, and C 2 O 4 2 - for the nearby urban and rural areas; OC, EC, NO 3 - , K + , acetate, formate, levoglucosan, and some F - and Br - for biomass burning; MeSO 3 - , Na + , Mg 2 + , K + , and Ca 2 + for aged marine emissions from the Pacific Ocean; arabitol, mannitol, and glucose for biogenic emissions; Na + , Ca 2 + , Mg 2 + , and K + for soil dust; and SO 4 2 - , F - , and some Cl - for volcanism. Regional biomass burning practices influence the soluble fraction of the aerosol between June and November. The organic fraction is present all year round and has both anthropogenic (biomass burning and other combustion sources) and natural (primary and secondary biogenic emissions) origins, with the OC / EC mass ratio being practically constant all year round (10.5 +/- 5.7, IQR 8.1-13.3). Peruvian volcanism has dominated the SO 4 2 - concentration since 2014, though it presents strong temporal variability due to the intermittence of the sources and seasonal changes in the transport patterns. These measurements represent some of the first long-term observations of aerosol chemical composition at a continental high-altitude site in the tropical Southern Hemisphere.