The complete plastome sequences of invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus : genome organization, evolutionary significance, structural features, and comparative analysis

Parthenium hysterophorus , a globally widespread weed, poses a significant threat to agricultural ecosystems due to its invasive nature. We investigated the chloroplast genome of P. hysterophorus in this study. Our analysis revealed that the chloroplast genome of P. hysterophorus spans a length of 151,881 base pairs (bp). It exhibits typical quadripartite structure commonly found in chloroplast genomes, including inverted repeat regions (IR) of 25,085 bp, a small single copy (SSC) region of 18,052 bp, and a large single copy (LSC) region of 83,588 bp. A total of 129 unique genes were identified in P. hysterophorus chloroplast genomes, including 85 protein-coding genes, 36 tRNAs, and eight rRNAs genes. Comparative analysis of the P. hysterophorus plastome with those of related species from the tribe Heliantheae revealed both conserved structures and intriguing variations. While many structural elements were shared among the species, we identified a rearrangement in the large single-copy region of P. hysterophorus . Moreover, our study highlighted notable gene divergence in several specific genes, namely mat K, ndh F, clp P, rps 16, ndh A, rps 3, and ndh D. Phylogenetic analysis based on the 72 shared genes placed P. hysterophorus in a distinct clade alongside another species, P. argentatum . Additionally, the estimated divergence time between the Parthenium genus and Helianthus (sunflowers) was approximately 15.1 million years ago (Mya). These findings provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history and genetic relationships of P. hysterophorus , shedding light on its divergence and adaptation over time.