Evidence of the interactions between immunosuppressive drugs used in autoimmune rheumatic diseases and Chinese herbal medicine: A scoping review

Objectives: Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) has been shown to be effective in autoimmune rheumatic diseases, but harmful herb -drug interactions might be inherent. We aim to review the evidence regarding herb -drug interactions between immunosuppressive drugs used in autoimmune rheumatic diseases and CHM. Methods: We searched PubMed, EMBASE and CINAHL from inception till 30 April 2023 using keywords that encompassed 'herb -drug interactions', 'herbs' and 'immunosuppressants'. Articles were included if they contained reports about interactions between immunosuppressive drugs used in the treatment of rheumatic diseases with CHM. Level of evidence for each pair of interaction was graded using the algorithm developed by Colalto. Results: A total of 65 articles and 44 unique pairs of interactions were identified. HDIs were reported for cyclophosphamide, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, methotrexate, mycophenolic acid, glucocorticoids, sulfasalazine, tofacitinib and biologic disease -modifying antirheumatic drugs. Among these, cyclosporine (n = 27, 41.5%) and tacrolimus (n = 19, 29.2%) had the highest number of documented interactions. Hypericum perforatum had the highest level of evidence of interaction with cyclosporine and tacrolimus. Consumption reduced the bioavailability and therapeutic effects of the drugs. Schisandra sphenanthera had the highest level of evidence of interaction with tacrolimus and increased the bioavailability of the drug. Majority of the articles were animal studies. Conclusion: Overall level of evidence for the included studies were low, though interactions between cyclosporine, tacrolimus, Hypericum perforatum and Schisandra sphenanthera were the most and well -documented. Healthcare professionals should actively enquire about the concurrent use of CHM in patients, especially when drugs with a narrow therapeutic index are consumed.