Sea cucumbers under ocean acidification and warming

Marine organisms are expected to be increasingly stressed by ocean acidification and ocean warming caused by the progressive anthropogenic increase in atmospheric CO2 levels and the absorption of approximately two-thirds of excess CO2 by the ocean. The responses of diverse ecological processes in economically and ecologically important holothuroids to the changing ocean have been of growing concern. Here we address some of them, including various aspects of gamete production, early life stages, biological function, and community interactions. In addition, future research needs and experimental considerations are highlighted.