The SSO Method in Police Research and Criminology

This chapter provides an overview and history of systematic social observations (SSO) as used by police researchers and in the study of crime in places. The origins of SSO in police research are attributable to Albert J. Reiss, Jr., who refined the method in his study of three police departments. SSO is contrasted with police studies that employed ethnographic and case study methods which were popular in the 1960s and 1970s. Other large-scale SSO projects in the 1970s and 1990s are discussed. In addition, the introduction of body-worn cameras to police circa 2014 has opened a new line of thinking with respect to using SSO to measure police behavior that now appears on video footage. Video-based systematic social observation (VBSSO) has increased, and researchers are exploring the issues surrounding this method. Lastly, the use of SSO in neighborhoods and hotspots show the value of the method to explain crime-prone areas using the theory of social disorganization and collective efficacy. We introduce environment-based systematic social observation (EBSSO), and link the method to police behavior and community engagement.