Physiological and pathological/ectopic mineralization: from composition to microstructure

Biomineralization is a process that leads to the formation of hierarchically arranged structures in mineralized tissues, such as bone and teeth. Extensive research has been conducted on the crystals in bones and teeth, with the aim of understanding the underlying mechanisms of the mineralization process. Pathological/ectopic mineralization, such as kidney stones, calcific tendinitis, and skeletal fluorosis, shares some similar features but different mechanisms to physiological mineralization. A better understanding will provide new perspectives for treating pathological/ectopic mineralization-related diseases. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms of the crystallization and growth of crystals in physiological and pathological conditions from a chemistry perspective. By linking the microstructures and functions of crystals formed in both conditions, potential approaches are proposed to treat pathological/ectopic mineralization-related diseases.