British and Irish rivers

Some of the main rivers of the Central European Highlands and Plains flow into the Baltic and North Seas, including the rivers Weser, Elbe, and Oder, drain the ecoregion of the central European highlands and plains. In addition to these rivers, this chapter describes some smaller but peculiar rivers such as the Em (Sweden), Skjern (Denmark), Spree (Germany), and Drawa (Poland). Much of the landscape is dominated by glacial and periglacial geomorphic elements such as moraines, outwash plains adjacent to terminal moraines, different types of lakes (ice-scour lakes, moraine-dammed ribbon lakes, kettle lakes, and glacial drift-plain lakes formed under the ice sheet), large glacial valleys, and large lowland plains consisting of glaciofluvial deposits. The different retreat stages of the glacial sheet produced a sequence of glacial valleys forcing meltwaters toward the North Sea. These valleys are used partially by some rivers today, including the Elbe, Spree, Warta, and Skjern. As river sediments mainly consist of sand, sediment transport occurs nearly continuously, creating ripples or subaqueous sand dunes often reaching a crest height of up to 1.5 m. Regional ecological characteristics of flowing waters in the ecoregion were summarized. This chapter summarizes the hydrology, biochemistry, geomorphology, flora and fauna, and economic importance of each of these rivers. Human intervention to conserve and manage these rivers is also discussed.