Impact of anthropogenic infrastructure on aquatic and avian predator-prey interactions in a modified lowland river

The relationship between aquatic and avian predators and prey is a fundamental process that influences the ecological dynamics of freshwater communities; a landscape of fear underpins spatial and temporal habitat use of prey, i.e., non-consumptive predation effects. For example, complex marginal vegetation and other natural in-river refuges are known to be important for prey to manage predation risk and predators must alter their behaviour in response to habitat patches prey occupy. However, it is unclear how prey respond to predators, and vice versa, in heavily modified degraded lowland rivers with a high degree of river maintenance measures; a component critical for flood risk management globally. Such modifications could lead to prey seeking refuge at hazardous anthropogenic infrastructure, but a robust quantification of predator-prey interactions in this context is required to develop this understanding.Using multi-beam sonar (Dual-Frequency Identification Sonar), we non-invasively and simultaneously quantified the temporal rate of predator-prey interactions, the attack behaviour of predators, and the refuge seeking behaviour of prey at a pumping station intake during winter in a heavily modified lowland river.Prey fish experienced temporally dynamic, density-dependant, and species-specific predation risks from two dissimilar predators (i.e., aquatic vs. avian); pike (Esox lucius) and cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo). Generalised linear modelling revealed that prey refuge use was positively associated with predator attack rate. Non-consumptive effects were evidenced by quantified changes to shoal structure (density, area), shoaling (group aggregation), and schooling (coordinated directional movement), including diurnal migrations to and from the pumping station intake for refuge.Our results show that in the absence of natural refuge habitats the natural landscape of fear shifted and speculate that prey fish were paradoxically dependant on hazardous anthropogenic infrastructure, i.e., a pumping station intake, for refuge from predators in a degraded lowland river.These findings strongly enhance our understanding of the impact of anthropogenic infrastructure on predator-prey interactions by demonstrating how flood risk management, including river maintenance measures, and associated anthropogenic infrastructure can impact the behavioural game played between aquatic and avian predators and their prey.