Organic sulfur from source to sink in low-sulfate Lake Superior

Organic sulfur plays a crucial role in the biogeochemistry of aquatic sediments, especially in low sulfate (< 500 mu M) environments like freshwater lakes and the Earth's early oceans. To better understand organic sulfur cycling in these systems, we followed organic sulfur in the sulfate-poor (< 40 mu M) iron-rich (30-80 mu M) sediments of Lake Superior from source to sink. We identified microbial populations with shotgun metagenomic sequencing and characterized geochemical species in porewater and solid phases. In anoxic sediments, we found an active sulfur cycle fueled primarily by oxidized organic sulfur. Sediment incubations indicated a microbial capacity to hydrolyze sulfonates, sulfate esters, and sulfonic acids to sulfate. Gene abundances for dissimilatory sulfate reduction (dsrAB) increased with depth and coincided with sulfide maxima. Despite these indicators of sulfide formation, sulfide concentrations remain low (< 40 nM) due to both pyritization and organic matter sulfurization. Immediately below the oxycline, pyrite accounted for 13% of total sedimentary sulfur. Both free and intact lipids in this same interval accumulated disulfides, indicating rapid sulfurization even at low concentrations of sulfide. Our investigation revealed a new model of sulfur cycling in a low-sulfate environment that likely extends to other modern lakes and possibly the ancient ocean, with organic sulfur both fueling sulfate reduction and consuming the resultant sulfide.