The effect of urbanization and behavioral factors on coyote net displacement and its implications for seed dispersal

Coyotes ( Canis latrans ) may be important seed dispersal vectors in urban areas, given their omnivorous diet and wide-ranging movement patterns potentially able to bypass fragmentation. Yet, fragmentation itself, anthropogenic food sources, and human activity can limit their natural movement patterns. Previous research has found urbanization limits movement range across mammals; however, it remains unclear the degree to which this may cascade into seed dispersal as seed retention time also plays an important role in seed dispersal distance. Additionally, social and temporal changes in behavior influence coyote movement patterns, likely interacting with the effect of urbanization on net displacement and, consequently, seed dispersal. We used GPS telemetry data to analyze the effect of urbanization on coyote net displacement ( n = 94 individuals), in interaction with social and temporal factors, for a series of seed retention timeframes. We found that urbanization led to overall shorter net displacement in comparison to rural areas. The effect of urbanization increased with increasing seed retention timeframe and disproportionately affected long-distance seed dispersal. Seasonality influenced the effect of urbanization to a smaller extent than social status. Social status had a strong interaction effect, as urbanization negatively impacted the net displacement of transient and dispersing coyotes but had a negligible influence on resident coyotes. Territoriality was likely the main limiting factor for the latter, whereas the former, which were wider ranging, were likely most affected by landscape configuration. In terms of seasonality, climate seasons explained variability in the data better than biological seasons, where net displacement remained more stable across climate seasons in urban areas, as opposed to rural areas, where net displacement increased during winter and decreased during summer. Interestingly, despite the urban effect, coyote net displacement varied across social statuses and seasons in both landscape types, suggesting coyotes can provide a heterogenous seed dispersal contribution within and across plant species. Future research on fine-scale movement patterns and scat analysis is needed to better understand the cascading effects of decreased long-distance net displacements on urban plant populations.