Molecular mechanism by which RRM2-inhibitor (cholagogue osalmid) plus bafilomycin A1 cause autophagic cell death in multiple myeloma

Despite significant improvement in the prognosis of multiple myeloma (MM), the disease remains incurable; thus, more effective therapies are required. Ribonucleoside-diphosphate reductase subunit M2 (RRM2) is significantly associated with drug resistance, rapid relapse, and poor prognosis. Previously, we found that 4-hydroxysalicylanilide (osalmid), a specific inhibitor of RRM2, exhibits anti-MM activity in vitro, in vivo, and in human patients; however, the mechanism remains unclear. Osalmid inhibits the translocation of RRM2 to the nucleus and stimulates autophagosome synthesis but inhibits subsequent autophagosome–lysosome fusion. We confirm that RRM2 binds to receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) and reduces RIPK3, inhibiting autophagosome–lysosome fusion. Interestingly, the combination of osalmid and bafilomycin A1 (an autophagy inhibitor) depletes RIPK3 and aggravates p62 and autophagosome accumulation, leading to autophagic cell death. Combination therapy demonstrates synergistic cytotoxicity both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, we propose that combining osalmid and bafilomycin A1(BafA1) may have clinical benefits against MM.