Evaluation of Antibacterial, Antibiofilm, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Kratom Leaves ( Mitragyna speciosa ) Fermentation Supernatant Containing Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG

Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa ) leaves are commonly used to enhance endurance and treat various diseases. This study evaluated the effect of kratom leaf fermentation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus . Antibacterial activity was investigated against Staphylococcus aureus , methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), Escherichia coli , and E. coli O157:H7. Biofilm inhibition and eradication assays were also performed. Antioxidant properties were determined by measuring the total phenolic and flavonoid content and DPPH and ABTS scavenging activities. Nitric oxide and TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 expressions in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells were also measured. Aqueous kratom extract exhibited promising effects against free radicals and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Notably, all fermented kratoms showed significant antibacterial activity against the tested pathogens and antibiofilm formation by S. aureus and MRSA. Furthermore, the eradication of established biofilms of fermented kratoms was observed in S. aureus (day 2, 50 mg/mL) and E. coli (day 2, 100 mg/mL and day 4, 50 mg/mL). To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to report that fermented and non-fermented kratoms could be nutraceutical sources of antibacterial, antibiofilm, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory substances against related diseases and can be applied further in dietary or cosmetic products with health-promoting effects.