Smart Temperature Sensor Design and High-Density Water Temperature Monitoring in Estuarine and Coastal Areas.

Acquiring in situ water temperature data is an indispensable and important component for analyzing thermal dynamics in estuarine and coastal areas. However, the long-term and high-density monitoring of water temperature is costly and technically challenging. In this paper, we present the design, calibration, and application of the smart temperature sensor TS-V1, a low-power yet low-cost temperature sensor for monitoring the spatial-temporal variations of surface water temperatures and air temperatures in estuarine and coastal areas. The temperature output of the TS-V1 sensor was calibrated against the Fluke-1551A sensor developed in the United States and the CTD-Diver sensor developed in the Netherlands. The results show that the accuracy of the TS-V1 sensor is 0.08 °C, while sensitivity tests suggest that the TS-V1 sensor (comprising a titanium alloy shell with a thermal conductivity of 7.6 W/(m °C)) is approximately 0.31~0.54 s/°C slower than the CTD-Diver sensor (zirconia shell with thermal conductivity of 3 W/(m °C)) in measuring water temperatures but 6.92~10.12 s/°C faster than the CTD-Diver sensor in measuring air temperatures. In addition, the price of the proposed TS-V1 sensor is only approximately 1 and 0.3 times as much as the established commercial sensors, respectively. The TS-V1 sensor was used to collect surface water temperature and air temperature in the western part of the Pearl River Estuary from July 2022 to September 2022. These data wells captured water and air temperature changes, frequency distributions, and temperature characteristics. Our sensor is, thus, particularly useful for the study of thermal dynamics in estuarine and coastal areas.