The three-dimensionally articulated oral apparatus of a Devonian heterostracan sheds light on feeding in Palaeozoic jawless fishes

Attempts to explain the origin and diversification of vertebrates have commonly invoked the evolution of feeding ecology, contrasting the passive suspension feeding of invertebrate chordates and larval lampreys with active predation in living jawed vertebrates. Of the extinct jawless vertebrates that phylogenetically intercalate these living groups, the feeding apparatus is preserved only in the early diverging stem-gnathostome heterostracans and its anatomy remains poorly understood. Here we use X-ray microtomography to characterise the feeding apparatus of the pteraspid heterostracan Rhinopteraspis dunensis (Roemer, 1855). We show that the apparatus is composed of thirteen plates arranged approximately bilaterally, the majority of which articulate from the postoral plate. Our reconstruction of the apparatus shows that the oral plates would have been capable of movement within the dorso-ventral plane, but their degree of movement was limited. The functional morphology of the apparatus in Rhinopteraspis precludes all proposed interpretations of feeding except for suspension/deposit feeding and we interpret the apparatus as having served primarily to moderate the oral gape. This is consistent with evidence that at least some early jawless gnathostomes were suspension feeders and runs contrary to macroecological scenarios that envisage early vertebrate evolution as characterised by a directional trend towards increasingly active food acquisition. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.