The use and abuse of Pb in bioarchaeological studies: A review of Pb concentration and isotope analyses of teeth

Lead (Pb) concentration and isotope analyses in human remains are powerful analytical tools used to examine differences in Pb exposure over time or between populations and to examine the movement of peoples and Pbcontaining cultural materials. While there was a large increase in the use of dental tissues for measuring Pb in the last 30 years, there has yet to be a critical evaluation of how these analyses are conducted or the data are used to answer archaeological questions. This article reviews 55 papers published between 1979 and 2021 on Pb concentrations and isotope analyses of teeth from archaeological populations to examine how they were used, areas where they were misused or insufficient information given, current limitations of the approaches, and future studies needed. This was applied across three broad topics: sample choice, concentration interpretation, and isotopic ratio interpretation. While major limitations exist, largely related to missing information in methodological approaches, there are a few overarching themes of use that need to be considered. First is considering the biological/cultural age of the teeth and therefore of the individuals represented, and the variability introduced when comparing disparate tooth types. Second, is the need to consider archaeological, ethnographic, and historical documentation when evaluating natural versus anthropogenic exposures. Finally, we recommend that greater consideration of the contributions from both environmental and cultural sources, including those that could be imported into different cultural regions. The consideration of all these factors is integral to future studies involving Pb concentration and isotope analyses in bioarchaeology.