Single transcript-level metabolic responsive landscape of human liver transcriptome

Direct knowledge of gene regulation in human liver by metabolic stimuli could fundamentally advance our understanding of metabolic physiology. This information, however, is largely unknown, and this void is deeply rooted in a paradox that is caused by the inaccessibility of human liver to treatments and the insufficient annotation of liver transcriptome. Recent advances have uncovered immense complexity of transcriptome, i.e., multiple transcripts produced from one gene and extensive RNA modifications, which are all highly regulated and often condition-dependent. Establishing an inclusive annotation to study liver transcriptome dynamics thus requires human liver samples of diverse conditions, which are paradoxically unavailable due to the inaccessibility of human liver to treatments. In this work, we addressed these challenges by coupling an isogenic humanized mouse model with Nanopore single-molecule direct RNA sequencing (DRS). We first generated mice that carried humanized livers of identical genetic background, which were equivalent to clones of a single human liver, and then subjected the mice to representative metabolic treatments. We then analyzed the humanized livers with Nanopore DRS, which directly reads full-length native RNAs to determine the expression level, m6A modification and poly(A) tail length of all RNA transcript isoforms. Thus, our system allows for constructing a de novo annotation of human liver transcriptomes reflecting metabolic responses and studying transcriptome dynamics in conjunction. Our analysis uncovered a vast number of novel genes and transcripts that have not been previously reported. Our transcript-level analysis of human liver transcriptomes also identified a multitude of regulated metabolic pathways that were otherwise invisible using conventional short read RNA-seq. We also revealed for the first time the dynamic changes in m6A and poly(A) tail length of human liver transcripts many of which are transcribed from key metabolic genes. Furthermore, we performed comparative analyses of gene regulation between human and mouse and between two individuals using the liver-specific humanized mice. This revealed that transcriptome dynamics are highly species- and genetic background-dependent, which may only be faithfully studied in a humanized system that entails clones of the same human liver. Hence our work revealed a complex metabolic responsive landscape of human liver transcriptome and also provided a framework to understand transcriptome dynamics of human liver in response to physiologically relevant metabolic stimuli. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.