Extraction of salt and base metals from geothermal water: Kinetic modeling and mechanism

Geothermal fluids have the potential as important sources of precious minerals and metals. There are several hydrometallurgical techniques by which geothermal fluid solutions can be processed to extract and purify metals and minerals such as potassium, manganese, zinc, and lithium. The primary methods for extraction of salt and base metals from geothermal water include precipitation, electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, adsorption, electrochemical intercalation, and ion exchange. Among several methods discussed so far membrane and adsorption methods can be one of the suitable methods for extraction of salt and base metals, respectively. The article also summarizes various mathematical modeling used to study dynamic behavior and kinetics of column adsorption. The three most widely used column models, i.e., Thomas, BDST, and Yoon–Nelson are discussed herein, that help to estimate the adsorption capacity and intensity giving an overview of mechanism and forces responsible for column sorption process. The elaborate discussion on mechanistic forces and factors responsible for metal extraction by sorption makes this review significant and preferable. Therefore, the article aims to provide deep insights and a quick overview of salt and base metal sources, their extraction processes, column sorption dynamics, kinetic modeling, and mechanisms in one sight. Graphical Abstract Work flow for Base metal Extraction from geothermal water.