Determinants of influenza and COVID-19 vaccine intent or uptake in Lebanon: a scoping review of the literature

Background Vaccination is essential to protect from influenza and recently from COVID-19, yet uptake in Lebanon is suboptimal. Several factors determine uptake including knowledge, attitude and policies. We conducted a scoping review of the literature to explore the determinants of influenza and COVID-19 vaccine intent or uptake in Lebanon. Methods Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines, thirty one peer reviewed studies indexed in six databases Pub Med, EMBASE, Scopus, CINAHL, Medline, and the Cochrane Library were screened. Two students, a senior Librarian and an Associate Professor in nursing searched for eligible studies. The library search strategy followed a combination of three broad concepts (viral influenzas; vaccines; Lebanon). The search timeframe was up till December 31, 2022. Determinants of influenza and COVID-19 vaccine intent or uptake were categorized following the constructs of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Results Nine studies investigated influenza vaccine intent or uptake among the public community, parents and healthcare workers. Twenty one studies investigated COVID-19 vaccine intent or uptake among the public community, older refugees, university students, patients with cancer, dentists, and social media users. One study investigated both types of vaccines. A conceptual model of the determinants of vaccine intent and uptake within the Lebanese context was developed. Various determinants included environmental factors, norms, knowledge, perceptions, attitudes, past experiences, behavioral control and hesitancy. Conclusions Research on vaccine intent and uptake in Lebanon is still in its infancy, while that of COVID-19 is on the rise. Multifaceted reasons behind the low vaccination rates were observed yet few attempts were made to target vulnerable groups. Further research studies are needed to target vulnerable groups.