Integrating Remote Sensing and Weather Variables for Mango Yield Prediction Using a Machine Learning Approach.

Accurate pre-harvest yield forecasting of mango is essential to the industry as it supports better decision making around harvesting logistics and forward selling, thus optimizing productivity and reducing food waste. Current methods for yield forecasting such as manually counting 2-3% of the orchard can be accurate but are very time inefficient and labour intensive. More recent evaluations of technological solutions such as remote (satellite) and proximal (on ground) sensing have provided very encouraging results, but they still require infield in-season sampling for calibration, the technology comes at a significant cost, and commercial availability is limited, especially for vehicle-mounted sensors. This study presents the first evaluation of a "time series"-based remote sensing method for yield forecasting of mango, a method that does not require infield fruit counts and utilizes freely available satellite imagery. Historic yield data from 2015 to 2022 were sourced from 51 individual orchard blocks from two farms (AH and MK) in the Northern Territory of Australia. Time series measures of the canopy reflectance properties of the blocks were obtained from Landsat 7 and 8 satellite data for the 2015-2022 growing seasons. From the imagery, the following vegetation indices (VIs) were derived: EVI, GNDVI, NDVI, and LSWI, whilst corresponding weather variables (rainfall (Prec), temperature (Tmin/Tmax), evapotranspiration (ETo), solar radiation (Rad), and vapor pressure deficit (vpd)) were also sourced from SILO data. To determine the relationships among weather and remotely sensed measures of canopy throughout the growing season and the yield achieved (at the block level and the farm level), six machine learning (ML) algorithms, namely random forest (RF), support vector regression (SVR), eXtreme gradient boosting (XGBOOST), RIDGE, LASSO and partial least square regression (PLSR), were trialed. The EVI/GNDVI and Prec/Tmin were found to be the best RS and weather predictors, respectively. The block-level combined RS/weather-based RF model for 2021 produced the best result (MAE = 2.9 t/ha), marginally better than the RS only RF model (MAE = 3.4 t/ha). The farm-level model error (FLEM) was generally lower than the block-level model error, for both the combined RS/weather-based RF model (farm = 3.7%, block (NMAE) = 33.6% for 2021) and the RS-based model (farm = 4.3%, block = 38.4% for 2021). Further testing of the RS/weather-based RF models over six additional orchards (other than AH and MK) produced errors ranging between 24% and 39% from 2016 to 2020. Although accuracies of prediction did vary at both the block level and the farm level, this preliminary study demonstrates the potential of a "time series" RS method for predicting mango yields. The benefits to the mango industry are that it utilizes freely available imagery, requires no infield calibration, and provides predictions several months before the commercial harvest. Therefore, this outcome not only presents a more adoptable option for the industry, but also better supports automation and scalability in terms of block-, farm-, regional, and national level forecasting.