Activation of peroxydisulfate by V-Fe concentrate ore for enhanced degradation of carbamazepine: Surface ≡V(III) and ≡V(IV) as electron donors promoted the regeneration of ≡Fe(II)

•V-Fe/PMS system exhibits superior catalytic performance for CBZ degradation.•Surface ≡V(Ⅲ) and ≡V(Ⅳ) as electron donors promoted the regeneration of ≡Fe(Ⅱ).•The Half-lives method was used to determine the reaction orders of CBZ degradation.•EPR analysis and DFT calculation helped to explain the degradation pathways of CBZ.•Catalyst displayed excellent recyclability, reusability, and general applicability.