Membrane-bound and soluble immune checkpoints are abundant in ascitic fluid from patients with decompensated cirrhosis

Background Immune checkpoint receptors (ICRs) regulate immune responses by balancing the stimulatory and inhibitory signals delivered to immune cells by antigen-presenting cells. Evidence suggests that membrane-bound and soluble ICRs are dysregulated in liver disease, particularly in alcoholic hepatitis. We hypothesized that membrane-bound and soluble ICRs are compartmentalized and aberrantly regulated in patients with acute liver failure (ACLF) and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP).