Circadian regulation of pulmonary disease: the importance of timing

Circadian regulation causes the activity of biological processes to vary over a 24-h cycle. The pathological effects of this variation are predominantly studied using two different ap-proaches: pre-clinical models or observational clinical studies. Both these approaches have provided useful insights into how underlying circadian mechanisms operate and specifically which are regulated by the molecular oscillator, a key time-keeping mechanism in the body. This review compares and contrasts findings from these two approaches in the context of four common respiratory diseases (asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pul-monary fibrosis, and respiratory infection). Potential methods used to identify and measure human circadian oscillations are also discussed as these will be useful outcome measures in future interventional human trials that target circadian mechanisms.