Crystal-defect engineering of electrode materials for energy storage and conversion

Crystal-defect engineering in electrode materials is an emerging research area for tailoring properties, which opens up unprecedented possibilities not only in battery and catalysis but also in controlling physical, chemical, and electronic properties. In the past few years, numerous types of research have been performed to alter the surface/interface electronic structure of electrode materials or to optimize the physical and chemical properties of electrode materials, which improves their electrochemical performance. However, it is still challenging to describe the effects of the inherent or intentionally created defects of various types on energy storage and energy conversion systems, dependent on the perspective of crystal structural defects. In this review, the definition, classification, characterization, and model simulation of crystal defects are first described. Subsequently, the manufacturing methods of crystal defects and the application of different kinds of crystal defects in the fields of batteries and catalysis are emphasized. Finally, the potential challenges and opportunities of defective electrode materials in relation to controllable preparation, in-situ characterization, and commercial applications are discussed, providing a perspective for future development.