Multi-Level Brain Mapping to Optimize Neuro-modulation in Individual and Group Levels in Substance Use Disorder

There is a growing body of evidence for the effectiveness of transcranial electrical stimulation (tES) for substance use disorders (SUDs). However, the main challenge is a arge inter- and intra-individual variability in response to tES. Response heterogeneity and variability in treatment efficacy can be improved through personalized interventions. Here, we appraised important factors in tES individualization at four levels; (1)context , (2)target, (3)dose, and (4)timing.