Crystal distortions and structural defects at several scales generated during the growth of silicon contaminated with carbon

For all fabrication processes of the photovoltaic (PV) industry based on silicon, grain boundaries, dislocations, and impurity contamination control during solidification remains a major challenge to improve the electrical properties. In particular, carbon (C) is a major deleterious impurity for solar cells. The combination of X-ray radiography and Bragg diffraction imaging (topography) achieved in situ during silicon solidification allowed us to characterise the dynamics of the growth mechanisms involved in the formation of the grain structure and of defects, related to the presence of C. Ex situ techniques were used to characterise the grain structure and for a more precise analysis of the defects and their associated distortion fields. In the presence of C, it is shown that the resulting grain structure is constituted by a higher proportion of high-order and incoherent twin boundaries compared with the case of pure samples. Crystal distortion is characterised at the grain scale level and at a lower scale, both in situ and after cooling-down. The highest distortion at the grain scale corresponds to the position of the high order twin boundaries and is accentuated during cooling-down following solidification. Locally distorted regions and sub-grains are distributed all over the samples. They are observed in situ during the solidification from various seeds containing C (mono-crystals, industrial ribbons and multi-crystalline samples) and are retrieved after solidification. A model implying the presence of SiC precipitates at the solid-liquid interface is proposed to explain the formation during solidification of these sub-grains and of the associated local distortion.