Pregnancy and prenatal stress

We review evidence that maternal stress during pregnancy and related concepts such as pregnancy anxiety are associated with risks of adverse birth outcomes especially preterm birth and low birth weight, as well as less favorable development in offspring. In addition, we describe the forms of stress, anxiety and distress shown to be harmful, and briefly review behavioral and physiological mechanisms. Finally, we discuss some maternal interventions that may be protective, and offer recommendations to women to alleviate stress and anxiety during pregnancy.