Solitude in Context: A Systematic Review of How Social Norms and Physical Environment Shape Perceptions of Solitary Experiences

It is counterintuitive to suggest that even in solitude one is not completely separated from the world, as the social and physical surroundings might continue to interact with internal experiences. This systematic review explored the roles of norms and the physical environment in shaping individuals’ perceptions of being alone. We conducted searches in Medline, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and Google Scholar, for both published and unpublished articles between 1981 and 2021 using specific keywords. Using a set of predetermined inclusion criteria, 157 papers met the criteria. We summarised statistics on study designs and sample characteristics, coded and organised themes into three sections. First, we identified norms that form around specific activities that appear to shape perceptions and experiences in solitude and strategies that the individual adopts to cope with it. Second, when it comes to physical environment, solitude is more positive in spaces with less social intrusion and when there are less safety concerns. Across the first two themes, there is also interaction between norms and physical environment, with specific norms that apply for women, and especially women from non-Western cultures, being alone in public spaces. Finally, norms and experiences vary depending on what stage of life one is at, with solitude and solo experiences being portrayed as more maladaptive and unfavourable earlier on in life while these experiences become more tolerable and enjoyable in older ages. Overall, findings from this review suggested that research on solitary experiences need to be contextualized within societal and physical contexts where they occur.