When is masculinity “fragile”? An expectancy-discrepancy-threat model of masculine identity

[accepted for publication in Personality and Social Psychology Review on November 8, 2022] Manhood is a precarious social status (Bosson et al., 2021). Under perceived gender identity threat, men are disproportionately likely to enact certain stereotype-consistent responses like aggression to maintain their gender status. Yet less is known regarding individual variation in men’s threat responsiveness—i.e., the psychological conditions under which one’s masculine identity is more or less “fragile.” We propose a novel model of masculinity whereby masculine expectancy generates discrepancy within the self to the extent that rigid norms are internalized as obligational (actual-ought) versus aspirational (actual-ideal) (Higgins, 1987), which predict extrinsic versus intrinsic motivations to reduce these discrepancies (Deci & Ryan, 1987). Under threat, then, extrinsic motivations predict externalized responses (e.g., aggression), and intrinsic motivations elicit internalized responses (e.g., anxiety, shame, self-harm). We consider the conditions under which masculinity may be less fragile—e.g., in contexts with less rigid expectations and among men who reject expectations—as pathways to mitigate adverse masculinity threat-related outcomes.