Accountability for the future? International testing and future directions

International large-scale assessments (ILSAs), such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and the Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), have become vehicles to accountability in educational systems around the world. While these assessments bear great potential to inform educational research, practice, and policy-making, they have several limitations and constraints, especially concerning the level of inferences that can be drawn. This chapter reviews the current trends, key elements, and future directions of ILSAs and discusses their potential and limitations. Illustrative examples showcase the future directions of international testing.