Emerging bismuth-based materials: From fundamentals to electrochemical energy storage applications

Bismuth (Bi)-based materials have been receiving considerable attention as promising electrode materials in the fields of electrochemical energy storage, due to their excellent physical and chemical properties. However, they suffer from large volume expansion and sluggish reaction kinetics, leading to rapid capacity degradation and inferior rate performance. Accordingly, effective strategies including morphology design, microstructure opti-mization, and carbon/metals modification are used to achieve enhanced performance. Herein, we summarize the recent advances in design and fabrication of favorable structural features of Bi-based materials and their com-posites to realize enhanced performance in electrochemical energy storage applications, including lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries, other advanced batteries, and supercapacitors. Their structures and theoretical studies are first discussed. Subsequently, the relationships between nano/micro structures, synthetic methods, and electrochemical performance of Bi-based materials are systematically summarized. Moreover, the advanced in situ characterization techniques for understanding the reaction mechanisms of Bi-based materials are emphasized. Ultimately, the challenges and opportunities for future development of Bi-based nano/micro-materials toward high-performance electrochemical energy storage devices are proposed.