A 5500-year record of coastal dune evolution along the shores of Lake Michigan in the North American Great Lakes: The relationship of lake-level fluctuations and climate

Dune fields line much of the-1750-km long shore of Lake Michigan that extends from northwestern Indiana, north along the west coast of Lower Michigan, and west across southern Upper Michigan. Numerous geomorphic studies at specific sites or defined coastal reaches have demonstrated that dune formation began during the Nipissing maximum (-5500e450 0 calendar year Before Present (cal yr BP) and continued episodically to the present. Dune formation in these geographically confined areas is linked mostly to high lake stages and periods of increased storminess. Some recent research has also invoked drought as a potential causal mechanism on a site-specific basis. Although more than 250 collective absolute carbon-14 (14C) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages have been acquired in these many studies, a comprehensive statistical assessment of this robust dataset has yet to be con-ducted to reconstruct a full chronological reconstruction of dune evolution. This study statistically analyzes the dataset of all known OSL (118) and 14C ages (175) acquired directly from sand dunes. Application of a kernel density estimation (KDE) algorithm function to both datasets revealed the temporal patterns in the ages. Analysis of OSL ages indicates three major periods of dune growth, beginning between-5.0 and 3.8 ka during the Nipissing high stand and subsequent regression. The second phase occurred between-3.0 and 2.0 ka during the Algoma high stand and regression. Finally, the most recent interval of dune growth transpired between-1.3 and 0.8 ka in the aftermath of a high lake stage at-1.7 ka and another, shorter peak in lake level at-1.0 ka. These findings indicate that major pulses of dune building mostly occur during lake regressions. They also correspond to the rela-tively warmer and drier conditions of the Holocene Climate Optimum, Roman Climate Optimum, and Medieval Warm Period, respectively, as well as periods of relative drought in the region. These associ-ations indicate that drier conditions may have contributed to dune activation.Plotting of 14C data reveals no single variable, such as stability or burial, explains the timing of the four peaks in the kernel distribution of ages derived from organic remains. Intervals of higher 14C age fre-quencies occurred between-4500 and 3800 cal yr BP,-3500 and 2600 cal yr BP,-2300 and 1600 cal yr BP, and-700 and 200 cal yr BP. The peak at-4200 cal yr BP corresponds with a similar OSL pattern, indicating that 14C ages derived from weakly developed Entisols during this interval reflects their burial by eolian sand. Peaks in 14C densities within the latter intervals at-3200,-1800, and-400 cal Yr BP align with distinct drops in the OSL distribution. This pattern indicates that 14C ages from these intervals reflect episodes of stability and soil formation subsequent to episodes of dune building. Although this study demonstrates the general patterns of dune growth and stability, local variations in behavior likely occurred.(c) 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).