Deep magma degassing and volatile fluxes through volcanic hydrothermal systems: Insights from the Askja and Kverkfjo?ll volcanoes, Iceland

Mantle volatiles are transported to Earth's crust and surface by basaltic volcanism. During subaerial eruptions, vast amounts of carbon, sulfur and halogens can be released to the atmosphere during a short time-interval, with impacts ranging in scale from the local environment to the global climate. By contrast, passive volatile release at the surface originating from magmatic intrusions is characterized by much lower flux, yet may outsize eruptive volatile quantities over long timescales. Volcanic hydrothermal systems (VHSs) act as conduits for such volatile release from degassing intrusions and can be used to gauge the contribution of intrusive magmatism to global volatile cycles. Here, we present new compositional and isotopic (delta D and delta 18O-H2O, 3He/4He, delta 13C-CO2, Delta 33S-delta 34S-H2S and SO4) data for thermal waters and fumarole gases from the Askja and Kverkfjo center dot ll volcanoes in central Iceland. We use the data together with magma degassing modelling and mass balance calculations to constrain the sources of volatiles in VHSs and to assess the role of intrusive magmatism to the volcanic volatile emission budgets in Iceland. The CO2/sigma S (10-30), 3He/4He (8.3-10.5 RA; 3He/4He relative to air), delta 13C-CO2 (-4.1 to-0.2 %o) and Delta 33S-delta 34S-H2S (-0.031 to 0.003 %o and-1.5 to +3.6%o) values in high-gas flux fumaroles (CO2 > 10 mmol/mol) are consistent with an intrusive magmatic origin for CO2 and S at Askja and Kverkfjo center dot ll. We demonstrate that deep (0.5-5 kbar, equivalent to-2-18 km crustal depth) decompression degassing of basaltic intrusions in Iceland results in CO2 and S fluxes of 330-5060 and 6-210 kt/yr, respectively, which is sufficient to account for the estimated CO2 flux of Icelandic VHSs (3365-6730 kt/yr), but not the VHS S flux (220-440 kt/yr). Secondary, crystallization-driven degassing from maturing intrusions and leaching of crustal rocks are suggested as addi-tional sources of S. Only a minor proportion of the mantle flux of Cl is channeled via VHSs whereas the H2O flux remains poorly constrained, because magmatic signals in Icelandic VHSs are masked by a dominant shallow groundwater component of meteoric water origin. These results suggest that the bulk of the mantle CO2 and S flux to the atmosphere in Iceland is supplied by intrusive, not eruptive magmatism, and is largely vented via hydrothermal fields.