Barriers for upgrading of latrines in rural Ethiopia: disentangling a sanitation socio-technical lock-in

Ethiopia achieved the fastest reduction in open defaecation worldwide over the two past decades. However, it was through the use of predominantly non-durable, unhygienic latrines. It questions the presumed effects of latrine adoption on public health and heightens a risk of return to open defaecation. Resources invested into sanitation in Ethiopia may be wasted if upgrading to latrines is not facilitated. This paper aims to understand factors hindering the improvement of latrines in Southern Ethiopia based on the structured interviews and direct observations among 504 rural households supplemented by qualitative interviews with local representatives. We examine the quality and past improvements of latrines, revealed plans and attitudes regarding the improvements, willingness to pay for hygienic latrine components, costs perceptions and infrastructural barriers. We identified a socio-technical lock-in characterised by the sustained use of unhygienic latrines without recognisable shifts up the sanitation ladder. It has been cemented by the demand-oriented sanitation strategy, poverty and infrastructural constraints. People are generally satisfied with unhygienic latrines, being convinced that their use is good for health. The satisfaction curbs the demand for latrine upgrading. The demand for latrine upgrading is further reduced by poverty and material constraints, preventing local supply of hygienic sanitation components to develop. Our findings show that market approaches alone will not solve the problem. Provision of subsidised sanitation products is required together with a campaign that would disintegrate the widespread belief that the use of any latrine is good for human health.