Generalist arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi dominated heavy metal polluted soils at two artisanal and small − scale gold mining sites in southeastern Ecuador

Background Artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities are producing contamination with heavy metals and metalloids (HMM) into soils and water worldwide. The HMM are considered as one of the major abiotic stresses due to their long-term persistence in soil. In this context, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) confer resistance to a variety of abiotic plant stressors including HMM. However, little is known regarding the diversity and composition of AMF communities in heavy metal polluted sites in Ecuador. Methods In order to investigate the AMF diversity, root samples and associated soil of six plant species were collected from two sites polluted by heavy metals, located in Zamora-Chinchipe province, Ecuador. The AMF 18S nrDNA genetic region was analyzed and sequenced, and fungal OTUs were defined based on 99% sequence similarity. Results were contrasted with AMF communities from a natural forest and from reforestation sites located in the same province and with available sequences in GenBank. Results The main pollutants in soils were Pb, Zn, Hg, Cd and Cu with concentrations exceeding the soil reference value for agricultural use. Molecular phylogeny and OTU delimitation showed 19 OTUs, the family Glomeraceae was the most OTU-rich followed by Archaeosporaceae, Acaulosporaceae, Ambisporaceae and Paraglomeraceae. Most of the OTUs (11 of 19) have been found at other locations worldwide, 14 OTUs were proven from nearby non-contaminated sites in Zamora-Chinchipe. Conclusion Our study showed that there are no specialized OTUs at the studied HMM polluted sites, but rather generalists adapted to a wide variety of habitats. Their potential role in phytoremediation approaches remains to be investigated.