Benomyl-induced development and cardiac toxicity in zebrafish embryos

Benomyl is a highly effective broad-spectrum fungicide widely used worldwide to control vegetable, fruit, and oil crop diseases. However, the mechanism of its toxicity to aquatic organisms and humans remains unknown. In this study, zebrafish were used to determine the toxicity of benomyl. It was found to be highly toxic, with a 72-h post-fertilization (hpf) lethal concentration 50 (LC 50 ) of 1.454 mg/L. Benomyl induced severe developmental toxicity, including shorter body length, slower heart rate, and a reduced yolk absorption rate. Benomyl also increased oxidative stress in zebrafish, especially in the heart and head, as well as increasing malondialdehyde (MDA) content and decreasing catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities. This indicates that benomyl induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cell membrane peroxidation in vivo. Acridine orange (AO) staining and apoptosis factor detection further indicated that benomyl induced apoptosis in zebrafish. Overall, these findings demonstrate that benomyl disrupts cellular homeostasis by activating oxidative stress in zebrafish, resulting in an imbalance of cardiac development-related gene expression and apoptosis, which causes severe developmental toxicity and cardiac dysfunction. This study evaluated the in vivo toxicity of benomyl, which is a potential threat to aquatic organisms and humans. Possible toxicity mechanisms are explored, providing a valuable reference for the safe use of benomyl.