"Same same but different" Exploring evolutionary and ecological causes of eye diversification in bumblebees

Bees rely heavily on vision during most of their interaction with the environment, but so far, visual abilities have not been included into functional investigations of these crucial pollinators. This is probably due to the lack of comprehensive and phylogenetically-controlled quantification of visual traits across species. In the present study, we used high-throughput micro-CT tools to quantify, compare and understand the diversity of visual traits of compound eyes in bumblebees. Visual systems of bumblebees were far from identical, with variations across sizes, castes and species. While phylogenetic proximity poorly supported interspecific variations, these were better explained by two ecological factors: social parasitism and habitat. The eye parameter, a metric that measures the relative investment of a compound eye into resolution or sensitivity, was lower in queens of social parasitic species than of non-parasitic species. Workers of species associated with forested habitat had distinct visual traits, including a higher eye parameter, than those of species living in open landscapes. These diverse visual traits are likely to provide selective advantages to bumblebees given their specific ecological requirements. We thus propose that social parasitism and forest habitat are drivers of the diversification of compound eyes in bumblebees. Finally, we discuss how the present study can inspire trait-based approaches in ecology and conservation biology. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.