Comparative analysis of time and monetary opportunity costs of human-wildlife conflict in Amboseli and Mt. Kenya Ecosystems, Kenya

Abstract Traditionally, the cost of Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) has largely focused on visible costs, ignoring the hidden costs (HC). The HC of HWC are losses that are uncompensated, temporarily delayed, or psychosocial in nature. HC, such as opportunity costs (OC) are scantly documented to inform policy changes for addressing HWC. This study demonstrates the importance of considering HC using Amboseli Ecosystem (AE) and Mt. Kenya Ecosystem (MKE) in Kenya. The objectives of this study were to: a). quantify the economic magnitude of the OC of HWC and its impacts on human wellbeing; b) compare the time and monetary OC; c) make recommendations for HWC related policy reform. Data was collected from 408 households using a multi-stage sampling technique. Opportunity costs were conceptualised as the mean time and money lost due to wildlife presence and attacks. Analysis indicates that the hours spent guarding livestock (t = 3.820, d.f = 110, p = 0.000) and crops (t = 3.571, d.f = 130, p = 0.00) in AE and MKE at night were significantly different. Conversely, daytime hours spent guarding livestock and crops in AE and MKE were similar (P > 0.05). On average, AE households spent KES 208, 540 (US$ 1913) compared to MKE who incurred KES 131,309.75 (US$1205) guarding livestock and crops. School children in AE lost more time in the morning (1.28 ± 0.053 h; n = 98) and in the evening (1.22 ± 0.044 h; n = 93) than in MKE. Overall, OC were more in AE than MKE, suggesting that HC varies with ecosystems. A review of the wildlife compensation policy and law to include HC can help deter resentments resulting from uncompensated HWC costs.