Complex plumages spur rapid color diversification in island kingfishers (Aves: Alcedinidae)

Oceanic islands are cradles for diversity. Differences in predation pressures and lack of competition on islands are thought to drive both phenotypic and species diversification. While most work exploring these patterns has focused on life history, behavioral and morphological traits, many island species are uniquely colorful. Yet, a recent study of island bird coloration found that insular species are duller than continental species. Whether such shifts in color are associated with increased rates of color evolution on islands remains unknown. Here, we incorporate geometric morphometric techniques to study plumage color diversity in a speciose clade of colorful birds that inhabit nearly all areas of the globe—kingfishers (Aves: Alcedinidae). In particular, we test two hypotheses: (i) that plumage complexity enhances interspecific rates of color evolution and (ii) that plumage color diversity is elevated on islands. Our results show that more complex plumages result in more diverse colors among species and plumage color evolves faster on islands. Importantly, we found that insular species did not have more complex plumages than their continental relatives. Thus, complexity may be a key innovation that facilitates response to divergent (or relaxed) selection pressures on islands. Lack of support for competition driving rates of evolution along different color axes hints at an allopatric model of color evolution in which species adapt to local conditions on different islands. This work demonstrates how a truly multivariate treatment of color data can reveal evolutionary patterns that might otherwise go unnoticed. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.