The Contribution of Small Impact Craters to Lunar Polar Wander

Changes in mass distribution affect the gravitational figure and reorient a planetary body's surface with respect to its rotational axis. The mass anomalies in the present-day lunar gravity field can reveal how the figure and pole position have evolved over the Moon's history. By examining sequentially each individual crater and basin, working backward in time order through the catalog of nearly 5200 craters and basins between 1200 and 20 km in diameter, we investigate their contribution to the lunar gravitational figure and reconstruct the evolution of the pole position by extracting their gravitational signatures from the present-day Moon. We find that craters and basins in this diameter range, which excludes South Pole-Aitken, have contributed to nearly 25% of the present-day power from the Moon's degree-2 gravitational figure and resulted in a total displacement of the Moon's pole by similar to 10 degrees along the Earth-Moon tidal axis over the past similar to 4.25 billion years. This also implies that the geographical location of the Moon's rotational pole has not moved since similar to 3.8 Ga by more than similar to 2 degrees in latitude owing to impacts, and this has implications for the long-term stability of volatiles in the polar regions.